Religion, Resistance, and Cultural Sovereignty: Shandong Province’s Anti-Christian Movement and Protestant Efforts in the 1920s

Abstract

This article investigates the Anti-Christian Movement and Protestant efforts in Shandong Province during the 1920s, situating it within the broader context of China’s response to foreign religious influence amid rising nationalism and communism. From the 19th century, China was impacted by Western powers in culture, education, and other aspects, and the Protestant churches played a crucial role. By the early 20th century, China had experienced multiple political upheavals and revolutions, which had triggered social, cultural, and ideological upheavals, as well as further changes in the attitudes of various sectors of Chinese society towards Christianity. As one of the earlier regions exposed to Protestant missions, Shandong became a focal point of tensions between Chinese cultural identity and Western religious presence, particularly in the aftermath of sustained imperialist encroachment and political upheavals in early twentieth-century China. This study employs archival research methods, drawing primarily on sources such as missionary reports, government announcements and local gazetteers. This study aims to address the following issues: the causes, processes, and outcomes of the Anti-Christian Movement in Shandong, as well as the responses and activities of local Protestant churches during this period. This study finds that the Anti-Christian Movement in Shandong is a critical expression of cultural security and sovereignty. It influenced government policy on religion, reshaped the strategies of Protestant churches under mounting pressure, and contributed to the reconstruction of Sino-Western relations during a formative period. Local communists also succeeded in expanding their influence among students and intellectuals through the movement. Despite opposition, Protestant institutions adapted through local partnerships and shifts in educational and social engagement, revealing the complex interplay between internal resistance and external religious influence in Republican China. Protestants in Shandong continued to pursue educational and social initiatives, adapting to new social and political realities by forging closer ties with local actors.