“Leftover Women” on Social Media in China: A Text Mining Approach

GAOQIANG LU

Abstract


Previous studies have primarily examined media and public representations of women labelled as “leftover women”, while comparatively less attention has been given to how women negotiate this label and construct their identities through social media self-narratives. To address this gap, this study extends the feminist critical discourse analysis (FCDA) framework by incorporating positive discourse analysis (PDA) to analyse self-narratives posted by women who use or negotiate the label “leftover women”. After posts retrieved using the search term “剩女” were manually filtered to include those that referred to the authors’ own personal experiences in relation to the label, the dataset finally consisted of 111 first-person posts (23,097 Chinese characters). Text mining, specifically co-occurrence network analysis conducted in KH Coder (version 3.07), was used to identify recurrent lexical patterns. These computational patterns were then interpreted through close reading of concordance contexts, with attention to gendered evaluation.  The analysis identifies three interrelated themes: “the KPI-ization of life”, “life with weak ties”, and “from being evaluated to self-recovery”. These findings diverge from traditional media portrayals that depict “leftover women” as highly accomplished women who actively choose singlehood because of their exceptional qualities. Theoretically, the study extends the FCDA framework by incorporating PDA to examine gendered discourses while highlighting women’s agency in negotiating, resisting, and redefining the label “leftover women”. Methodologically, it also demonstrates the value of text mining for analysing short and fragmented social media texts and contributes to broader discussions of the links between gendered expectations, intimate relationships, women’s lived experiences, and contemporary marriage and fertility trends in China.

 

Keywords: Feminist critical discourse analysis; Gender discourse; Leftover women; RedNote; Self-narratives; Text mining approach 

 


Kajian terdahulu yang meneliti representasi wanita yang dilabel sebagai “wanita lebihan” dalam media dan wacana awam. Namun begitu, perhatian yang diberikan terhadap cara wanita merundingkan label ini dan membina identiti mereka melalui naratif kendiri di media sosial masih agak terhad. Bagi mengisi jurang ini, kajian ini memperluas kerangka analisis wacana kritis feminis (FCDA) dengan menggabungkannya dengan analisis wacana positif (PDA) untuk menganalisis naratif kendiri yang dimuat naik oleh wanita yang menggunakan atau merundingkan label “wanita lebihan”. Setelah hantaran yang diperoleh menggunakan kata carian “剩女” ditapis secara manual bagi memilih hantaran yang merujuk pengalaman peribadi penulis berkaitan label tersebut, set data akhir terdiri daripada 111 hantaran dalam sudut pandang orang pertama (23,097 aksara bahasa Cina). Perlombongan teks, khususnya analisis jaringan ko-kejadian yang dijalankan menggunakan KH Coder (versi 3.07), digunakan untuk mengenal pasti pola leksikal yang berulang. Pola pengkomputeran ini kemudiannya ditafsirkan melalui pembacaan teliti terhadap konteks konkordans dengan memberikan perhatian kepada penilaian berasaskan gender. Analisis ini mengenal pasti tiga tema yang saling berkait, iaitu “KPI-isasi kehidupan”, “kehidupan dengan ikatan sosial yang lemah” dan “daripada dinilai kepada pemulihan diri”. Dapatan ini berbeza daripada gambaran tradisional media yang menggambarkan “wanita lebihan” sebagai wanita berprestasi tinggi yang memilih untuk hidup membujang secara aktif disebabkan keistimewaan mereka. Dari segi teori, kajian ini memperluas kerangka FCDA dengan menggabungkan PDA untuk meneliti wacana gender, di samping menyerlahkan agensi wanita dalam merundingkan, menentang dan mentakrifkan semula label “wanita lebihan”. Dari segi metodologi, kajian ini turut menunjukkan nilai perlombongan teks dalam menganalisis teks media sosial yang pendek dan terpecah-pecah serta menyumbang kepada perbincangan yang lebih luas tentang hubungan antara jangkaan gender, hubungan intim, pengalaman hidup wanita dan trend perkahwinan serta kesuburan semasa di China.


Kata kunci: Analisis wacana kritis feminis; wacana gender; wanita lebihan; RedNote; naratif kendiri; pendekatan perlombongan teks


Keywords


Feminist critical discourse analysis; Gender discourse; Leftover women; RedNote; Self-narratives; Text mining approach

Full Text:

PDF

References


Aiston, S. J., Morley, L., & Fo, C. K. (2025). Becoming a third sex?: Chinese women and postgraduate education. European Journal of Education, 60(1), e12815.

Anis Nadiah, C. A. R. (2024). The portrayal of women: A corpus analysis of the representation around the word ‘Wanita’ in the Malaysian Hansard Corpus. GEMA Online Journal of Language Studies, 24(4). https://doi.org/10.17576/gema-2024-2404-09

DePaulo, B. (2023). Single and flourishing: Transcending the deficit narratives of single life. Journal of Family Theory & Review, 15(3), 389-411. https://doi.org/10.1111/jftr.12525

Fairclough, N. (1995). Critical discourse analysis: The critical study of language. Longman.

Fincher, L. H. (2014). Leftover women: The resurgence of gender inequality in China. Bloomsbury Publishing.

Gaetano, A. (2014). “Leftover women”: Postponing marriage and renegotiating womanhood in urban China. Journal of Research in Gender Studies, 4(2), 124-149.

Gong, J., Lu, G., & Wu, Y. (2026). Legitimation and delegitimation in online argumentative discourse on Weibo: a discourse-historical analysis of the Jiang Ping controversy. Humanities and Social Sciences Communications, 13(1), 796. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-026-07064-8

Gui, T. (2020). “Leftover women” or single by choice: Gender role negotiation of single professional women in contemporary China. Journal of Family Issues, 41(11), 1956-1978. https://doi.org/10.1177/0192513x20943919

Higuchi, K. (2024). KH Coder (Version 3.0.7) [Computer software]. In https://khcoder.net/en/

Himawan, K. K., Underwood, M., Bambling, M., & Edirippulige, S. (2022). Being single when marriage is the norm: Internet use and the well-being of never-married adults in Indonesia. Current Psychology, 41(12), 8850-8861. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-021-01367-6

Hong, X. (2018). “Leftover women” standing up for selves. China Daily. Retrieved from https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/a/201805/15/WS5afb0009a3103f6866ee88b2.html

Ji, Y. (2015). Between tradition and modernity: “Leftover” women in Shanghai. Journal of Marriage and Family, 77(5), 1057-1073. https://doi.org/10.1111/jomf.12220

Lazar, M. M. (2007). Feminist critical discourse analysis: Articulating a feminist discourse praxis. Critical Discourse Studies, 4(2), 141-164. https://doi.org/10.1080/17405900701464816

Lazar, M. M. (2014). Feminist critical discourse analysis. In S. Ehrlich, M. Meyerhoff, & J. Holmes (Eds.), The handbook of language, gender, and sexuality (2nd ed., pp. 180-199). John Wiley & Sons. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118584248.ch9

Li, X. (2023). Constructing the ultimate “leftover women”: Chinese media’s representation of female PhDs in the postsocialist era. Feminist Media Studies, 23(3), 902-917. https://doi.org/10.1080/14680777.2021.2016884

Liu, M. (2024). Towards a ‘synergy’ of text mining and critical discourse analysis: A corpus-assisted discourse study of imagining China in Hong Kong political discourse. Digital Scholarship in the Humanities, 39(2), 625-637. https://doi.org/10.1093/llc/fqae010

Liu, M., & Huang, J. (2026). Incorporating text mining into critical discourse studies: A corpus-assisted discourse study of press representations of climate change in China. In B. Forchtner & F. Zappettini (Eds.), Handbook on critical discourse studies (pp. 233-246). Edward Elgar Publishing. https://doi.org/10.4337/9781035319763.00033

Lu, G. (2026). Discursive strategies shift in U.S. Governmental discourse on Russia and Ukraine: A corpus-assisted discourse analysis across the Obama, Trump, and Biden administrations. Social Semiotics, 1-17. https://doi.org/10.1080/10350330.2026.2630268

Lu, G., & Yu, Y. (2024). The use of metaphors to construct crisis discourses in describing COVID-19 vaccines in the Chinese and the American news media. Journal of Language and Politics, 23(4), 520-543. https://doi.org/10.1075/jlp.22153.lu

Luo, W. (2017). Television’s “leftover” bachelors and hegemonic masculinity in postsocialist China. Women's Studies in Communication, 40(2), 190-211. https://doi.org/10.1080/07491409.2017.1295295

Martin, J. R. (2004). Positive discourse analysis: Solidarity and change. Revista Canaria de Estudios Ingleses, 49, 179-200.

McEnery, T., & Hardie, A. (2012). Corpus linguistics: Method, theory and practice. Cambridge University Press.

Nartey, M. (2023). Centering marginalized voices: A discourse analytic study of the Black Lives Matter movement on Twitter. In M. Nartey (Ed.), Voice, agency and resistance (1st ed., pp. 65-80). Routledge.

National Bureau of Statistics. (2023). 中国统计年鉴2023 [China statistical yearbook 2023]. Beijing: China Statistics Press.

Shi, W., & Liu, S.-D. (2025). Middle-aged women’s tears: Rethinking Chinese popular feminism through Sisters Who Make Waves. Feminist Media Studies, 25(1), 137-153. https://doi.org/10.1080/14680777.2023.2271179

Stern, M. (2012). “We can’t build our dreams on suspicious minds”: Neoliberalism, education policy, and the feelings left over. Cultural Studies ↔ Critical Methodologies, 12(5), 387-400. https://doi.org/10.1177/1532708612453004

To, S. (2013). Understanding sheng nu (“leftover women”): The phenomenon of late marriage among Chinese professional women. Symbolic Interaction, 36(1), 1-20. https://doi.org/10.1002/symb.46

van Dijk, T. A. (1993). Principles of critical discourse analysis. Discourse & Society, 4(2), 249-283. https://doi.org/10.1177/0957926593004002006

van Dijk, T. A. (2001). Multidisciplinary CDA: A plea for diversity. In R. Wodak & M. Meyer (Eds.), Methods of critical discourse analysis: Introducing qualitative methods (2nd ed., pp. 95-120). SAGE.

Wang, H., & Abbott, D. A. (2013). Waiting for Mr. Right: The meaning of being a single educated Chinese female over 30 in Beijing and Guangzhou. Women's Studies International Forum, 40, 222-229. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wsif.2013.08.004

Wang, M. (2018). “Leftover women” are new force in China. China Daily. Retrieved from https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/a/201806/13/WS5b20e263a31001b82572194f.html

Widdowson, H. G. (1995). Discourse analysis: A critical view. Language and Literature: International Journal of Stylistics, 4(3), 157-172. https://doi.org/10.1177/096394709500400301

Yan, Y. (2010). The Chinese path to individualization. The British Journal of Sociology, 61(3), 489-512. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-4446.2010.01323.x

Yu, Y. (2019). Media representations of “leftover women” in China: A corpus-assisted critical discourse analysis. Gender & Language, 13(3), 369-395. https://doi.org/10.1558/genl.36223

Zhang, X., Zhu, W., Sun, S., & Chen, J. (2021). Does influencers popularity actually matter? An experimental investigation of the effect of influencers on body satisfaction and mood among young Chinese females: The case of RED (Xiaohongshu). Frontiers in Psychology, 12, Article 756010. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.756010

Zheng, S. S., & Xu, M. (2022). From leftover women to cuihun – audience reception of TV representation on marriageable single women in China. Feminist Media Studies, 22(5), 1282-1286. https://doi.org/10.1080/14680777.2022.2077796




DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.17576/gema-2026-2603-07

Refbacks

  • There are currently no refbacks.


 

 

 

eISSN : 2550-2131

ISSN : 1675-8021