Chapters of TESOL Master ’ s Theses by Vietnamese Postgraduates

Citing other works poses difficulties for novice writers, especially the non-native English speaking students in their first experience of writing for academic purposes; the master’s (M.A.) thesis. However, few studies were conducted on these students’ citations in their M.A. theses. This paper, therefore, presents the study of in-text citations in 24 literature review (LR) chapters of TESOL M.A. theses written by Vietnamese students. Employing the Antconc software, Thompson and Tribble’s (2001) framework for citation types and functions, and discourse-based interviews with the actual thesis writers and their thesis supervisors, the study confirmed the claim that non-native novice writers cannot fully learn crucial citation practices from mere reading of the guidelines. Besides these writers’ preference for integral citations and a very limited number of citation functions used in their LR chapters, this study also identified the presence of several secondary citations, the students’ “invented” ways of citing previous researchers, grammatical mistakes and the absence of further discussions of the cited works. These findings tend to render the students’ LR chapters as ineffective, in terms of grammar and the rhetorical functions of LR chapters in synthesizing, arguing and indicating the relevancy of the reviewed literature for the niche of their research to be established. Furthermore, these findings indicate a need for an increased amount of formal instruction in academic writing courses which aims at equipping novice writers with the means to successfully acknowledge the sources and at raising their awareness about the various functions and rhetorical effects of the students’ citations in their academic writing.


INTRODUCTION
describes citation as a rhetorical feature which is "central to the social context of persuasion" and has an important role in constructing knowledge (p.341).Jalilifar (2012) states that citing other works is a distinguishing feature of academic writing, and this practice has a complex communicative purpose with syntactic, semantic, and pragmatic variations.Acquiring the skills for appropriate and effective use of citations not only helps academic writers to appropriately integrate other people's words and ideas into their writing but also presents their study persuasively.Hyland (2000) also states that reference to the works or ideas of others can show the novelty of one's work.In fact, crucial rhetorical functions of citing previous studies are to allow writers to get their research grounded in the current state of disciplinary knowledge, to show the significance and relevance of their research, to Volume 16 (2), June 2016 ISSN: 1675-8021 Given its significance and potential challenges in academic writing, citation has not been formally taught to TESOL M.A. students in Vietnam.In fact, these writers were provided with the list of conventions of the APA citation style and they have to work out how to appropriately cite previous studies in their texts.However, Mansourizadeh and Ahmad (2011) emphasize that due to various purposes of citation use, novice writers cannot fully learn crucial citation practices from mere reading of the instructions.Moreover, like the situation described in Jalilifar (2012), how Vietnamese M.A. students in the TESOL discourse community cite and what types of citation they used in their writing would only be their supervisors' secondary concern.It is because the supervisors know that their supervisees' deployment of citations is not judged by the thesis examiners in the defense session.Furthermore, due to their rhetorical functions, LR chapters are believed to contain a majority of citations in a thesis.This study, therefore, intends to answer the question "How are citations deployed in terms of their types and functions in the LR chapters by these Vietnamese M.A. students?"Such investigations on citations in this study will provide an insightful description of citation practices in TESOL M.A. theses among Vietnamese postgraduate students and confirm the claims about the cultural, disciplinary, and genre specific characteristics of citation practices (Harwood, 2009;Hyland, 1999Hyland, , 2002a;;Jalilifar, 2012;Jalilifar & Dabbi, 2012).

METHODOLOGY DATA
The LR chapters from 24 electronic TESOL M.A. theses written during the 2009-2012 period by Vietnamese students were employed as the main data for the current study.They were randomly obtained with the writers' consent from all three universities providing this M.A. program (eight from each) in the South of Vietnam.For ease of reference and the anonymity of thesis writers, each chapter was also randomly coded from LR1 to LR24.The resulting corpus of 24 LR chapters consisted of 164,344 words (an average of 6,848 words each).

FRAMEWORKS FOR ANALYZING CITATION TYPES AND FUNCTIONS
Due to its comprehensiveness in terms of the combination of both the syntactic position of a citation within a clause (integral or non-integral citation) and its semantic function (which types of citations can be used in which contexts), Thompson and Tribble's (2001, pp. 95-96) framework was chosen as the instrument to analyze the citation types and functions in this LR corpus.Moreover, despite the similarities in the target genre (M.A. thesis) and the target group of writers (non-native English students) between Petrić's (2007) and those of the current study, Thompson and Tribble was chosen over Petrić's (2007) revised model for citation functions in M.A. theses in the field of gender.This is because the focus of this current study is on how Vietnamese students employ both the explicit grammatical roles of citations and their functions in their thesis LR chapters while Petrić's (2007) framework mainly focuses on the citation functions employed in low and high-graded theses.Furthermore, Thompson and Tribble's (2001) framework was chosen because it has been extensively applied in analyzing the citation types and functions employed in different text types and different disciplines (Jalilifar & Dabbi, 2012;Mansourizadeh & Ahmad, 2011;Petrić, 2007;Shooshtari & Jalilifar, 2010).Thompson and Tribble's (2001) framework is, therefore, expected to be applicable in the investigation of the types and functions of citations in the LR chapters of Vietnamese writers' in M.A. TESOL theses.Integral citations are divided into three categories: 1. Verb controlling: The citation acts as the agent that controls a lexical verb, in active or passive voice, as in: Davis and Olson (1985) define a management information system as...

Naming:
The citation is a noun phrase or part of a noun phrase used to signify a method, formulation or someone's work instead of a human agent as in: Typical price elasticities of demand for poultry products in Canada, Germany and the UK are shown in Harling and Thompson (1983).

Non-citation:
The citation is a reference to another writer but the name is given without a year reference because the reference has been supplied earlier in the text and the writer avoids repeating it as in: The "classical" form of the disease, described by Marek, causes significant mortality losses.
Non-integral citations are classified as follows: 1. Source: This citation indicates where the idea or information is taken from Citation is central... it can provide justification for arguments (Gilbert, 1976).

Identification: It identifies an agent within a sentence it refers to
A simulation model has therefore been developed … (Potts, 1980).
3. Reference: This type of citation is usually signaled by the inclusion of the directive "see".

DFID has changed its policy recently with regard to ELT (see DFID, 1998).
4. Origin: This citation indicates the originator of a concept, technique, or product.
The software package used was Wordsmith Tools (Scott, 1996).

PROCEDURES FOR CITATION ANALYSIS
Citation types were first searched on the Antconc concordance with the use of the Regular Expressions (Regex) which were written for both the conventional and "invented" citing ways by this group of writers.In fact, it was found that this group of Vietnamese writers had their own citing ways, especially in citing Vietnamese scholars.In order to capture all citations in the corpus, the researchers scanned all the texts, noted their "invented" citing ways, and then Regex were subsequently created if their "invented" citing ways had been found in the corpus.The key word "cited" was also employed in searching for the citation types because a number of secondary citations were noticed.Based on Thompson and Tribble's (2001) framework and with careful investigation on the context of each citation shown in the concordance lines, the citation types and functions were carefully classified.However, for identifying citation types, Hyland's (2000) criteria were followed.In this process, after the first citation was counted, each occurrence of another author's name was counted as one citation, regardless of whether or not it is followed by the year of publication.
In addition, in cases where more than one work was cited for a particular statement, only one instance was counted because the count indicates that a citation has been made, but not whether it is a single or a multiple reference citation (Mansourizadeh & Ahmad, 2011).Moreover, expressions which did not point to a specific author or source, such as "some authors" or "Marxists" were ignored (Hyland, 2002a).Finally, the occurrences of citation types and their functions were first calculated (per chapter and per 1,000 words) and then compared with those in the literature.

RELIABILITY OF CITATION ANALYSIS
First, the Regex were checked by an expert who is a university professor in the field of applied linguistics in order to ensure the accuracy of the search patterns.For the citation types, the researchers manually counted the citations used in each LR chapter and the counted number was compared with the results shown on the concordance lines (Antconc).The results of the manual counts showed several extra instances of "invented" citations which required new Regex.This method of validation helped to not only check for the accuracy of the Regex, but also to identify the possible discrepancy between the actual number of citations and those shown in the concordance lines.Regarding citation functions, their employment in the six LR chapters (25%) analyzed by each researcher was compared.Then, two researchers worked out the coding disagreements until a satisfactory level of coder agreement was attained.After that, the two researchers analyzed their use in the other LR chapters in the corpus.

INTERVIEW DATA
Apart from the analysis on Antconc, semi-structured interviews with six thesis writers and three thesis supervisors, were included to provide clarifications and insights on unconventional aspects of citation use in writing this genre in the TESOL discourse community in Vietnam (Biber, Connor, & Upton, 2007;Hyland, 2000).The strengths of the interview-based approach are also mentioned in Harwood's (2009) study of citation functions.First, citation functions cannot always be straightforwardly read off by text analysts.Second, interviews with actual writers can sidestep the major problem of relying on the surrounding text and researchers' specialized knowledge.Similarly, since citation behaviors are "individual and subjective", "complex and multi-dimensional" and "dynamic and situational" (Borgman & Furner, 2002, p. 20), it is important for analysts to question authors.In this research, semi-structured interviews of open-ended prompts which focus on the findings from the text analysis were conducted with supervisors and thesis writers.This semistructured interview format allows the researcher to probe and prompt where further clarifications or explanations are needed.The interviews were conducted in Vietnamese and recorded, but only the information that helped clarify the issues related to the unconventional employment of citations was translated with the aim of shedding more light on how this group of M.A. students employed citations in their LR chapters.

CITATION TYPES
Since there are few studies on the LR chapters (Kwan, 2006) and especially on citations used in these chapters (Soler-Monreal & Gil-Salom, 2012), the findings on citations in the LR chapters of the current corpus were compared with those of Jalilifar and Dabbi (2012), and others in the literature (if relevant) in order to have a better understanding about the citation practice of Vietnamese M.A. students.It is found that the LR chapter contains the largest number of citations (an average of 81.66 citations each) in comparison with the other chapters in this TESOL M.A. thesis corpus (Tables 1 and 2 below).This could be due to the communicative function of this chapter where thesis writers review what have been done in the literature and locate the research gap for their study (Kwan, 2006).However, in the interviews with thesis writers, it is interesting to know that they did not know the rhetorical functions of citations in the LR chapters.They explained that several more references were used in their LR chapters than in the others because the LR ones are where citations should be.Moreover, it is surprising to know from two thesis writers who stated that citations are not required in the other chapters of a thesis.As can be seen in excerpt 1, this writer was unaware of the rhetorical functions of citations, but relied on previous theses which they considered as good models.
(Excerpt 1) "…I think references to previous studies should be present in LR chapters, not in the others as from my observation, few citations were found in the other chapters of previous theses…" Such misunderstanding tends to suggest that it is difficult for non-native writers to implicitly acquire citation conventions.Therefore, explicit instruction of citations should be provided.With a total of 1,960 citations in the LR chapter sub-corpus of 164,344 words, it can be concluded that the number of citations in these LR chapters is relatively small.As shown in table 2, for every 1,000 words, nearly 12 citations were found, while in the thesis Introduction chapters written by Iranian M.A. students (Jalilifar & Dabbi, 2012), 14 citations were found per 1,000 words.It could be argued that the lower average number of references in these LR chapters could be due to the way citations are counted in this study.Unlike Jalilifar and Dabbi (2012) who counted each occurrence of another author's name as one citation, the current study recorded multiple references as one citation if they were cited for a particular statement.This is because the count indicates that a citation has been made, but not whether it is a single or a multiple reference citation (Mansourizadeh & Ahmad, 2011).However, the findings on citation types shown on the concordance lines revealed that there were few instances of multiple references employed by this group of Vietnamese writers.The lower number of references to previous studies identified in these LR chapters where citations are supposed to be dense may reflect the insufficiency of reference resources in the TESOL discourse community in Vietnam.This speculation has been made since the majority of references identified in this LR chapter corpus are from previous M.A. theses of Vietnamese students and old books, and almost none are from international journals.Moreover, in the interviews with six thesis writers and all three supervisors, they confirmed that the resources at the libraries of their universities are limited to old books.In fact, only one out of the three universities with this M.A. TESOL program in the South of Vietnam has recently subscribed to databases which provide access to newspapers and scholarly journals outside Vietnam.Besides the total number of citations in the LR chapters of this TESOL M.A. thesis corpus, table 2 also shows the types of citations used.When compared with the findings on citation types in the Introduction chapters of the same thesis corpus where there is an approximately equal number of integral and non-integral citations used (Nguyen & Pramoolsook, 2015), the findings on citations in these LR chapters show that these thesis writers employed almost twice more integral citations than non-integral ones (66.44% and 35.56%, respectively).Although the findings on citation-type preferences in these current LR chapters are in line with those in the thesis Introduction chapters written by Iranian students (Jalilifar & Dabbi, 2012), they are different from Hyland's (1999Hyland's ( , 2000) ) in which more nonintegral citation were found.This difference can be accounted for based on the disciplinary preferences.In fact, in Jalilifar and Dabbi's (2012), and the current thesis, the corpora are in the soft disciplines (Applied Linguistics and TESOL, respectively) where emphasis is mostly placed on the cited authors with the persuasive and argumentative purposes while impersonality is required in the hard disciplines in which human interest and intervention in knowledge discovery is avoided.As can be seen in table 3, there are variations in the number of citation types used in each LR chapter in the corpus.While some writers overused integral citations (LR2, LR7), others preferred non-integral ones (LR4, LR20).Besides the writers' personal preferences over the citation types, the number of citations used among these LR chapters varies.The highest number of 147 references in a LR chapter (LR18) was found, while in another LR chapter (LR13) only 36 citations were identified.Although the topics under investigations were found to attribute to such a difference identified in the Introduction chapters of the same corpus (Nguyen & Pramoolsook, 2015), they are unlikely to explain for the same phenomenon found in these current LR chapters.In other words, while the latter (LR13) compared "the effectiveness of using word card and guess-in-context techniques on high school students' retention of vocabulary", the former, focused on "the effects of strategic content-learning instruction on non-English majors' oral presentation ability within the setting of learner autonomy".It is clear from the title of the former thesis that its LR chapter (LR18) should focus on reviewing the literature on "strategic content-learning instruction", "Vietnamese' non-English major students", "their oral presentation ability", and "learner autonomy".In the latter LR chapter, the literature on fewer topics, namely "techniques of teaching vocabulary by using word cards and by guessing its meaning from contexts and Vietnamese high school students" was reviewed.Among 1,960 citations employed in these LR chapters, 175 instances (8.93%) made use of secondary sources for both integral and non-integral citations (63 and 112, respectively).Similar to the findings on secondary citations in the Introductions of this M.A. thesis corpus (Nguyen & Pramoolsook, 2015), more secondary sources were found if the LR chapter contained more citations.This incident could be attributed to the limited resources provided Volume 16(2), June 2016ISSN: 1675-8021 by these universities for the M.A. programs in Vietnam.In addition to this, "invented" secondary citation were employed in these LR chapters as can be seen in examples 1a, b and c below.In examples 1a and b, the primary sources of the cited propositions are not clearly indicated while the key word "cited" for the secondary source was not used in example 1c.These examples tend to suggest that these students' in-text citations in their M.A. theses might not be paid due attention to.As stated by all three supervisors, their supervision is mainly on the research matters, but not technical aspects like citations or thesis format (excerpt 2).Moreover, the supervisors added that their supervisees are supposed to know how to cite as they are given the APA guidelines for references.Moreover, due to the insufficiency of resources in their universities, secondary citations are acceptable in this particular TESOL discourse community in Vietnam.
(1a) Strategies such as self-monitoring, self-evaluation, advance organizers, self-management, and selective attention can be placed among the main metacognitive strategies.(Tabanlioglu, 2003 cited in p. 25) (LR9) (1b) Lynne Hand (cited on www.learnenglish.de)gives some advantages as below: …. (LR6) (1c) What is important is to provide learners with meaningful (comprehensible) input and opportunities to interact with each other in a language they understand so that they can use the target language in various situations (Krashen, 1983in Brown, 2000, p.

277-80) (LR7) (Excerpt 2) "…I rarely check on the technical things like thesis format or citation uses…Thesis writers are supposed to know these things by themselves. If not, it could be the university's fault. As a supervisor, I mainly focus on how my supervisees form research questions derived from their research purposes, then their conceptual frameworks, research design, subjects, statistics…"
Besides the citation types and the over-employment of secondary sources, it is interesting to see "invented" citing ways by this group of Vietnamese M.A. students.First, both integral and non-integral citations were occasionally found in the same statement (example 2).Furthermore, as shown in examples 3a, b & c, the integral citation was used but the names of the cited authors were not properly emphasized as they were listed as examples.This finding tends to indicate that these writers were not aware of the rhetorical functions of each citation type.Second, long web links were found in almost half of this LR chapter corpus (11out of 24 LR chapters), as can be seen in examples 4a & b below.Moreover, there is inconsistency of citing Vietnamese scholars in these LR chapters.While 13 thesis writers employed the surnames of Vietnamese scholars, followed by a year and/or page in their citations, full names (Example 5) or surnames, followed by a comma, middle and given names of Vietnamese scholars and a year (example 6) were found in 11 LR chapters.Finally, a few instances of foreign scholars' full names were also found (example 7).These findings are likely to confirm Paltridge's (2002) claim about the difficulties that thesis writers have in composing their own theses when they are provided with only the guidelines and handbooks without formal instructions.In fact, although these Vietnamese thesis writers were provided with the APA citing styles with illustrated examples, somehow, variations and unconventional citing ways were found.The existence of these problems could result from their unawareness of citation functions and citation conventions.Furthermore, the absence of how to cite Vietnamese or some Asian authors and the source taken from the websites in the guidelines provided by these universities could also account for these existing problems.
(2) Hoffman & Holden, (1997) pinpointed that the major advantage of the holistic scoring scheme over the analytic scoring one is that the scheme is relatively economical; raters can assign a global rating quickly (Hoffman & Holden, 1997, p. 2).(LR19) (3a) Some researchers such as Cumming, Eouanzoui, Kantor, Baba, Erdosy, and James (2005) reported important differences in the discourse characteristics of written texts related to the level of language proficiency as well as task types.(LR2) (3b) Other researchers such as Nation (1990), Waring (1997), Melka (1997) and Clark & Meara (1990) examine the receptive and productive vocabulary system to find out the gap between them in order to help the learners acquire the words intelligently.(LR10) (3c) For Maley (1983( , as cited in Nguyen et al., 2006, p. 5), p. 5), teachers represent the ultimate, the one and the only source of knowledge for students to obtain.(LR21) (4a) In http://www.Longman.com,long-term memory is so deep that it actually changes the structure of our brain.(LR10) (4b)"Practitioners of CLT show that they are very interested in the needs and the desires of the learners as well as the connection between the language as it is taught in their class and the language as it is used outside the classroom (From http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communicative_language_teaching#Overview_of_CLT)" (LR23) (5) "The next disadvantage of e-lesson plans is the matter of time.There is the fact that an effective and impressive lesson plan on Power Point often takes teachers much time to prepare (Vu Van Khanh, 2009)."(LR5) ( 6) "Likewise, Nguyen, Thi Nhu Quynh ( 2007) also supported that learners always have a great sense of not understanding any word unit without its translation into L1."(LR8) (7) While researchers suggested that L2 learners should apply guess-fromcontext to learn the vocabulary as it seemed vital for their vocabulary development, the learners on the other hand made frequent use of L1 translations in understanding meanings of unknown words (Larrotta Monsalve, 1999).(LR13) Besides these "invented" citing ways by this group of Vietnamese writers, it is surprising to find some citations without the year of publication but three question marks (???) (example 8).In the interview with this thesis writer who used the question mark instead of a year of publication, he reported that he could not find the year of publication for that reference.With the findings on this "invented" citing practice by these Vietnamese writers, it is suggested that this group of M.A. students in Vietnam did not pay due attention on how to cite previous works and attention to the citation format.However, a similar situation was also described in Jalilifar (2012) and Jalilifar and Dabbi (2012) in their studies on how Iranian M.A. students cite in their theses.From these studies on how NNEWs cite in their M.A. theses, it could be suggested that they should be formally instructed on how to use this important textual feature in their thesis composition.
(8) According to these hypotheses, Duenas (???) states that by excluding references to real domains of language use in ELT practices and materials, we will do the learners a disservice, as their knowledge of the actual dimension of the English language and its speakers in the world is distorted.(LR1)

CITATION FUNCTIONS INTEGRAL CITATIONS
As shown in Table 4, verb controlling was the most frequently used in these LR chapters (66%), followed by naming (29%) and non-citation (5%).This tendency to use these type of citation functions was also found in the Introduction chapters of this M.A. thesis corpus (Nguyen & Pramoolsook, 2015).Moreover, this distribution of citation functions was identified in the M.A. Introduction chapters written by Iranian M.A. students (Jalilifar & Dabbi, 2012).Such commonalities in citation functions between these two groups of nonnative English writers tend to suggest that placing the name(s) of cited authors at the subject position followed by a verb tends to be the easiest way in integrating citations into texts.
However, unlike the findings on citation functions in the Introduction chapters of the current thesis corpus (Nguyen & Pramoolsook, 2015) and those from Mansourizadeh and Ahmad (2011), which revealed that verb controlling was employed five times more than naming,, the former was twice more frequent than the latter in these LR chapters.A possible explanation for the difference between the Introduction and LR chapters in the current corpus could be due to their different communicative purposes.In fact, while citations are employed in the Introductions in order to establish the territory and the niche of the reported studies (Samraj, 2002;Swales, 1990Swales, , 2004)), they serve as a justification of the value of the research in the LR chapters (Kwan, 2006).In showing what is distinct from what has been done in the literature, previous related studies are supposed to be reviewed in detail in the LR chapters.In order words, besides identifying the previously-researched relevant work, the LR chapters review not only the findings but also the research methods and designs in order to inform about writers' own research design and avoid possible flaws in previous studies.Because of these specific communicative purposes of the LR chapter, naming was more frequently used in comparison to its use in the Introduction chapters of this M.A. thesis corpus.With regard to the different finding in terms of the use of the naming function from Mansourizadeh and Ahmad (2011), it could be explained by the fact that their results showed the frequency counts of the citation functions identified in the whole RAs written by Malaysians.The non-citation function, which aims to provide further discussion on the previously cited research by employing the name of the earlier cited authors without a year of reference since it has been supplied earlier (Thompson, 2001;Thompson & Tribble, 2001), was found in only 5% of integral citation functions.Similar to the finding on this integral citation function in the Introduction chapters of this M.A. thesis corpus (Nguyen & Pramoolsook, 2015), its infrequent occurrence tends to suggest that very few further discussions on cited references were provided by this group of Vietnamese writers.
Besides the overall distribution of integral citation functions, a closer inspection of the naming citation in these LR chapters revealed some interesting findings about the employment of this citation function.First, among 370 naming citation functions, 189 (51.1%) were found in the pattern According to X(year), followed by By X (year) in (28.83%), in X (year) (8.1%), of X (year) (4.32%), for X (year) (3.51%), from X (year) (1.1%) and within X (year) (0.8%).This finding indicates that According to X(year) is the preferred pattern in naming and noun normalization, which refers to the research methods, techniques or findings of other researchers, that is less commonly used in these LR chapters.The other interesting result identified in these LR chapters is the presence of careless mistakes in punctuations and non-idiomatic citing ways in the naming citation function.As shown in Examples 9a and 9b, both integral and non-integral citation forms of the same reference appeared in a sentence, the extra round bracket was placed in the non-integral citation at the end of the citing statement (9a), and unconventional practice of using integral citations (9b).
(9a) According to White (1994), "portfolios bring teaching, learning, and assessment together as mutually supportive activities, as opposed to the artificiality of conventional tests" (White (1994, p. 27).(LR19) (9b) Richards and others (1992, p.161) have mentioned that grammar is a description of the structure of a language and the way in which linguistic units such as words and phrases are combined to produce sentences in the language.(LR24) Examples 9c, 9d, and 9e, on the other hand, contained grammatical mistakes.In Example 9d, instead of " Nguyen (2010) in her study with…, she used", the sentence should be revised as "In her study with…, Nguyen (2010) used…".These "invented" citing ways do not only reflect the writers' linguistic insufficiency but also reduce the rhetorical effect of integral citations which place their emphasis on cited authors.More importantly, these findings indicate that it is difficult for English foreign language learners to acquire citation conventions through the provided guidelines.Therefore, an appropriate amount of explicit, form-based instruction with a clear focus on the lexical grammatical aspects of citations in terms of accurate structures should be introduced into the classroom to help these thesis writers.
(9c) However, according to Underhill (1987), he argues, "for a continuous assessment, the teacher's judgment is formed as a gradual process rather than as a sudden decision."(p.27) (LR23) (9d) This Nguyen's assumption appears to be contrary to Butler's conclusions on the effects of SCL on students who are less likely to employ effective strategies for learning or to develop effective strategies for themselves (Butler, 1996, p. 6)

NON-INTEGRAL CITATIONS
Table 5 shows the non-integral citation functions identified in the LR chapters of the TESOL M.A. theses written by Vietnamese students.Besides the functions categorized by Thompson and Tribble (2001), only two instances of the Example category mentioned in Thompson (2001) were also found in these LR chapters (LR7 & LR17) (Examples 10a & b).A closer look at these two instances, however, reveals that one was not properly used as Thompson (2001) defined "this citation is prefaced by either 'e.g." or "for example" and "provides a number of examples of studies referred to in the sentence" (p.105).In particular, while this citation function was used as defined by Thompson (2001) in (10a), it is ambiguous in (10b).Such a mistake is likely to suggest that guidelines on citation conventions are not sufficient but explicit instructions with illustrated examples should be provided, especially to nonnative English speaking students.(10a) Studies on reading (e.g., Cohen, 1990;Aebersold & Field, 1997) have shown that predictable words are fixated on for shorter periods of time.(LR17) (10b) In formal evaluation, a teacher is likely to use a communicative test, which is an integrative and has a real communicative function (e.g., Madsen, 1983;Hughes, 1989).(LR7) As also shown in Table 5, attributing the sources of the cited propositions to cited authors (Source) was predominantly present, accounting for 96.3% of the non-integral citations used in these LR chapters.This finding confirms previous studies on citation functions on M.A. theses written by non-native English students (Jalilifar & Dabbi, 2012;Petrić, 2007), and this citation function is claimed to be sufficient in displaying M.A. students' knowledge and their familiarity with the literature (Petrić, 2007).However, unlike the extreme employment of this citation function in the Introduction chapters of this M.A. thesis corpus (Nguyen & Pramoolsook, 2015), Origin and Reference and Example functions were identified in these LR chapters with relatively small percentages (3%, 0.4% and 0.3%, respectively).Origin was mainly used to indicate the originator of a concept or a term as can be seen in Example 11.Like the use of Example, Reference was ambiguously employed as can be seen in Example 12.In fact, "Cohen, 2005' was directed to as a source for further details about the cited proposition, but this "directive" function tends to be less certain as it is a secondary source through the employment of another non-integral secondary citation "cited in Cohen & Upton, 2006".Therefore, instructions on citations should explicitly be taught to this group of writers in Vietnam in order to raise their awareness of various rhetorical functions of citations because if they use them properly, the citations will help them acculturate into their disciplinary discourse.Reference, for example, a 'short hand device" (Thompson, 2001, p. 105) or 'directive device" (Hyland, 2002b, p. 215), can be employed to not only show the writer's ability to gather information from sources but also to direct the reader to another text in which exact details can be found.Reference, if used properly, therefore, allows writers to reveal as much of the relationship as he or she thinks the reader needs to know.(11) The relationship between language and culture has been widely investigated and confirmed by many researchers.This is proved by the fact that many new words have been coined to reflect this strong relationship: linguaculture (Kramsch, 1989;Fantini, 1995), languaculture (Agar 1994), language-culture (Galisson, 1991), language-and-culture (Byram & Morgan, 1993)

CONCLUSION
This study examined the citation types and functions used in 24 LR chapters of TESOL M.A. theses written by Vietnamese postgraduates.The results obtained from the analysis on the Antconc concordance and interviews with actual thesis writers and their supervisors confirmed Mansourizadeh and Ahmad's (2011) claim that non-native novice writers cannot fully learn crucial citation practices from their mere reading of the instructions or guidelines provided.In fact, these Vietnamese writers did not fully know the rhetorical functions of citations as they believed that LR chapters are the only chapters where citations are employed in their theses.Despite this belief and by-far the biggest number of citations found in these LR chapters as compared with other chapters in the thesis corpus, a very limited number of citations (around 12 instances) were found in the corpus of every 1,000 words.Moreover, besides several secondary citations (9%), there was a great variation in the number of citations, which range from 147 to 36 instances, and citation types used among these LR chapters in the corpus.Although these writers' personal preferences over the citation types and the insufficiency of reference resources at their universities libraries could account for these findings, these writers overuse of two citation functions (verb controlling and source) in integral and non-integral citation types, respectively may indicate their unawareness of various rhetorical functions of citations.Furthermore, their unconventional practice and their grammatical mistakes in citing previous researchers seemed to reflect undue attention paid to how these students cited in the TESOL discourse community in Vietnam.
From the identified problems in this study and as indicated in Low, Phoon, Petras and Mohamad's (2013) study on Asian novice writers' writing issues, an appropriate amount of explicit, form-based instruction with a clear focus on the lexical and grammatical aspects of citations in terms of accurate structures may need to be introduced into the classroom.With raise awareness of this rhetorical practice, these novice writers can become sensitive to the subtleties of citation types and functions and they can use them in a conscientious and effective manner in their future academic writing.Despite the small scale study and the fact that the present study was not conducted in a move-related approach as recent studies on citations (Kwan & Chan, 2014;Samraj, 2013), the findings of this paper, to a certain extent, can provide a general picture of how Vietnamese writers cite in their thesis LR chapters.

TABLE 1 .
Citation distributions in each chapter of 24 TESOL M.A. theses

TABLE 2 .
Citation types in LR chapters

TABLE 3 .
Distribution of citations in 24 LR chapters

Nguyen (2010) in her study with
. (LR18) the title "Teaching and Learning Grammar through Games in the Tenth Grade at Hung Vuong High School, she used some communicative and linguistic games with 102 tenth graders of Hung Vuong High School in Binh Duong province.(LR24)

TABLE 5 .
Function distribution in non-integral citations in 24 LR chapters

see Cohen, 2005) (cited in Cohen & Upton, 2006).
(LR1) (12) While processes are general, subconscious or unconscious, and more automatic, strategies are subject to control, more intentional, and used to act upon the processes (