Forests, Protest Movements and the Struggle Over Meaning and Identity in Sarawak

FADZILAH MAJID COOKE (Australian National University, fadzilah.cooke@anu.edu.au)

Abstract


Widespread rural protest against forestry activities in Sarawak during the mid 1980s and early 1990s invited retaliatory measures from the state in the form of tighter surveillance and criminalisation of protest. Thus, the protest movement could easily be dismissed as having failed to influence policy. However, in the long history of Dayak protest against forestry activities what may be new is the widespread and sustained nature of the action. But how was strategic mobilisatian possible, given the limited political space for critique, the lack of political cohesion and the heterogeneity of Dayak experience of the state and 'development'? Viewing Dayak protests as part of an ongoing larger social movement concerned with a more just state and environmental health, the paper highlights the way in which rural protest assists in the production of 'Dayakised' knowledge about development, environment and identity. In this larger movement, the work of academic researchers, environmental and indigenous activists are linked. The paper argues that the implications of the protests for rural Dayak understanding and experience of the state, citizenship and identity is far reaching but, as yet, little understood, suggesting a need for analysis of the state and civil society to move beyond party politics and the NGO movement. What the movement has done is expand the discourse and practice of conservation to include a wider range of concerns than have been possible in the past, given the tendency to privilege biological and economistic factors in resource management policy.

Key words: forests, native rights, protest movement, identity

ABSTRAK

Bantahan meluas masyarakat luar bandar yang berlaku di Sarawak terhadap kegiatan pembalakan, pada pertengahan tahun-tahun 1980an dan awal 1990an telah mengundang langkah tindak balas daripada pihak pemerintah yang meningkatkan pengawasan dan mengisytiharkan kegiatan bantahan itu sendiri sebagai kesalahan jenayah. Dengan itu, pergerakan bantahan itu boleh dianggap sebagai telah gagal mempengaruhi dasar. Walau bagaimanapun, apa yang baru dalam sepanjang sejarah bantahan yang dilakukan oleh kaum Dayak terhadap kegiatan pembalakan itu ialah sifatnya yang meluas dan berterusan (sustained). Namun bagaimanakah mungkin berlakunya pengembelingan secara strategik memandangkan terbatasnya ruang politik untuk kiritikan, kurangnya kesepaduan politik dan keseragaman pengalaman kaum Dayak mengenai pemerintah dan 'pembangunan'? Dengan melihat bantahan kaum Dayak itu sebagai sehahagian daripada pergerakan sosial yang lebih besar lagi berterusan, untuk mewujudkan sebuah negara yang lebih adil dan persekitaran yang lebih sihat, makalah ini memaparkan cara bagaimana bantahan rakyat desar membantu meningkatkan pengetahuan kaum Dayak mengenai pembangunan, alam sekitar dan identiti. Dalam pergerakan yang luas ini, hasil kerja penyelidik akademik, dan aktivis alam sekitar dan aktivis masyarakat peribumi. Makalah ini menghujah bahawa implikasi bantahan itu kepada pemahaman dan pengalaman kaum Dayak di desa mengenai pemerintah, kerakyatan dan identiti adalah menjangkau jauh tetapi kurang difahami. Hal ini menunjukkan perlunya analisis mengenai pemerintah dan masyarakat sivil melampaui sempadan parti politik dan pergerakan organisasi bukan kerajaan (NGO). Pergerakan NGO ini telah memperluaskan wacana dan amalan pemuliharaan untuk meliputi isu-isu yang lebih luas berbanding dengan yang pernah dilakukan. Perluasan ini dilakukan memandangkan terdapamya kecenderungan oleh pihak pembuat dasar untuk mengutamakan faktor-faktor biologi dan ekonomi dalam polisi pengurusan sumber.

Kata kunci: hutan, hak pribumi, pengerakan bantahan, identiti


Full Text:

PDF

References


Allison, L. 1991. Ecology and utility. Leicester: Leicester University Press.

Annual Reports, Forest Department Sarawak, 1934, 1939.

Ashforth. 1990.Reckoning schemes of legitimation: On commissions of inquiry as power/

knowledge forms. Journal of Historical Sociology 3(1): 1-22.

Ave, J. and King, V. 1986. Borneo: The people of the weeping forest. Leiden: National Museum of Ethnology.

Barraclough, S. 1984. Political participation and its regulation in Malaysia: Opposition to the Societies (Amendment) Act 1981. Pacific Affairs 57(3):450-461.

Bebbington, A. 1996. Indigenous organizations and agrarian strategies in Ecuador. In, Liberation ecologies: Environment, development, social movements, edited by Peet, R. and Watts, M. London and New York: Routledge.

Behan, R.W. 1990. Multiresource forest management: A paradigmatic challenge to professional forestry. Journal of Forestry 88(4): 12-18.

Bevis, W.W. 1995. Borneo log: The struggle for Sarawak's forests. Seattle and London: University of Washington Press.

Brosius, P. 1996. Between development and deforestation: Negotiating citizenship in a commodified landscape. In Penans and their surroundings, edited by Hood Salleh. Bangi, Malaysia: Institute for the Environment and Development (LESTARI), Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Round Table Dialogues No. 2.

Brosius, P. 1997. Prior transcripts, divergent paths: Resistance and acquiescence to logging in Sarawak, East Malaysia. Comparative studies in society and history 39(3): 468-510.

Browne, F.G 1954. Regional notes. Malayan Forester 17(l): 32-5.

Bryant, R.L. 1997. The political ecology of forestry in Burma 1826-1993. London: Hurst and Company.

Case, W. 1997. Malaysia: Still the semi-democratic paradigm. Asian Studies Review 21 (2-3): 79-90.

Chala, T. 1993. Development and change in Sarawak: An analysis of conflict. Master of Arts Thesis, University of Melbourne, Geography Department, Melbourne, Australia.

Chin, S.C. 1987. Do shifting cultivators deforest? In proceedings of conference on forest resources crisis in the third world, 6-8 September 1986. Pulau Pinang: Sahabat Alam Malaysia.

Chin, S.C. 1992. Curiouser and curiouser: Forestry in Sarawak. Wallaceana 63: 2-5.

Chin, S.C. 1985. Agriculture and resource utilization in a lowland rainforest Kenyah Monograph No. 4, Kuching, Sarawak.

Colchester, M. 1990. The International Tropical Timber Organisation: Kill or cure for the rainforests? Ecologist 20(5): 166-73.

Colchester, M. 1995. Forest peoples and sustainability. In The struggle for land and the fate of the forests. Edited by Colchester and Lohmann, L. Pulau Pinang, Malaysia: World Rainforest Movement/Ecologist/Med Books.

Cramb, R. 1978. The transition from shifting cultivation to commercial agriculture: A case study from the Layar River. Paper presented at the Workshop on Shifting Cultivation in Sarawak, 7-8 December 1978, Sarawak Department of Agriculture, Kuching.

Dauvergne, P. 1997. Shadows in the forest: Japan and the politics of timber in Southeast Asia Cambridge, Massachusets & London: MIT Press.

Dunn, F.L. 1975. Rainforest collectors and traders: A study of resource utilization in modern and ancient Malaya. Monographs of the Malaysian Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, No. 5.

Eccleston, B. and Potter, D. 1996. EnvironmentalNGOs and different political contexts in SoutheastAsia: Malaysia, Indonesia and Vietnam. In Envimnmental change in Sourheast Asia, edited by Parnwell, M.J.G. and Bryant, R.L. London: Routledge.

Eccleston, B. 1996. NGOs and competing representations of deforestation as an environmental issue in Malaysia. Journal of Commonwealth and Comparative Politics 34(1): 116-41.

Eccleston, B. 1996a. Does North-South collaboration enhance NGO influence on deforestation policies in Malaysia and Indonesia? Journal of Commonwealth and Comparative Politics 34(1):66-89.

Eldridge 1996.Development, democracy and non-government organizations in Indonesia. Asian Journal of Political Science4(1):17-35.

Khoo Kay Jin. 1992. The grand vision: Mahathir and modernisation. In Fragmented Vision: Culture and Politics in Contemporary Malaysia, edited by Kahn, J. and Low, F. Sydney: Allen & Unwin.

King, V. 1988. Models and realities: Malaysian national planning and East Malaysian development problems. Modern Asian Studies 22(2): 263-98.

King, V. 1990. Why is Sarawak peripheral? In Margins and minorities: The peripheral areas and peoples of East Asia, edited by King, V.T. & J.G Pamwell. Hull: Hull University Press.

King, V. 1996. Environmental change in Malaysian Borneo: Fire, drought and rain. In Environmental Change in Southeast Asia, edited by Pamwell, M. & R.L. Blyant. London: Routledge.

Klandermans, B. 1988. The formation and mobilization of consensus, In From structure to action: Comparing movement participation across cultures, edited by Klandermans, B., Kriesi, H. & Tarrow, S. Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.

Klandermans, B. Kriesi, H., and Tarrow, S. 1988. From structure to action: Comparing movement participation across cultures. Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.

Knight, J. 1997. A tale of two forests: Reforestation discourse in Japan and Beyond. Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute 3(4): 711-30.

Korsmo, F. 1990. Problem definition and the Alaska natives: Ethnic identity and policy formation. Policy Studies Review 9(2): 294-306.

Langub, J. 1996. Penan and their surroundings. In Penans and their surroundings, edited by Hood Salleh. Bangi, Malaysia: Institute for the Environment and Development (LESTARI), Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Round Table Dialogues No. 2.

Lian, F.J. 1987. Farmers' perception and economic change. PhD Thesis, Australian National University, Canberra.

Lim Teck Ghee. 1976. Origins of a colonial economy: Land and agriculture in Perak 1874-1897. Pulau Pinang, Malaysia: Penerbit Universiti Sains Malaysia.

Lim Teck Ghee 1996. Nongovernmental organizations in Malaysia and regional net working. In Emerging civil sociefy in the Asia Pacr3c community, edited by T. Yamamoto. Tokyo: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies.

Mahathir Mohamad. 1998. The way forward. London: Weidenfeld & Nicholson.

Majid Cooke, F. 1995. The politics of sustained yield forest management in Malaysia: Constructing the boundaries of time, control and consent. Geoforum 26(4): 445-58.

Majid Cooke, F. 1997. The politics of 'sustainability' in Sarawak. Journal of contemporary Asia 27(2): 217-41.

Majid Cooke, F. 1999. The challenge of sustainable forests, The policy of forest resource use in Malaysia, I970 - 1995. Sydney: Allen & Unwin and Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press.

Manser, B. 1996. Voices from the rainforest. Kuala Lumpur: Institute of Social Analysis.

Mead, J.P. 1925. Forestry in Sarawak. Empire Forestry Journal 4(1): 91-9.

Mead, J.P. 1938. Sarawak. Annual Report of the Forest Department 1937. Commentary, Empire Forestry Journal 17:322-4.

Milne, R. and Mauzy, D. 1978. Politics and government in Malaysia. Singapore: Times Books.

Milne, R., and Ratnam, K. 1974. Malaysia, new states in a new nation. London: Frank Cass.

Moran, A.,Chisholm, A. and Porter, M. 1991. Wood, wildlife and wilderness, managing Australia's native timber forests. In Markets resources and the environment, edited by Moran, A. et al. Sydney: Allen & Unwin.

Morris,A.D. and Mueller, C.M. (eds.). 1992. Frontiers in social movement theory. New Haven: Yale University Press.

Padoch, C. 1982. Land use in new and old areas of Iban settlement. Borneo Research Bulletin 14(1):3-14.

Pamwell, M.1.G and Taylor, D.M. 1996. Environmental degradation, non-timber forest products and Iban communities in Sarawak. In Environmental change in Southeast Asia, edited by Pamwell, M. & Bryant, R.L. London: Routledge.

Peet, R. and Watts, M. (eds.). 1996. Liberation ecologies: Environment, development, social movements. London & New York: Routledge.

Peluso, N. 1992. Richforests, poor people: Resource control and resistance in Java. Berkeley: University of California Press.

Princen, T. and Finger, M. 1994. Environmental NGOS in world politics. London & New York: Routledge.

Pringle, I. 1970. Rajahs and rebels: The Ibans of Sarawak under Brooke Rule, 1841- 1941. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press.

Rangan, H. 1993. Romancing the environment: Popular environmental activism in the Garhwal Himalayas. In In defense of livelihood, edited by Friedman, J. & Rangan, H. West Hartford, Connecticut: Kumarian Press.

Redford, K. and Steaman, A. 1993.Forest dwelling native Amazonians and the conservation of biodiversity: Interests in common or in collision? Conservation Biology 7(2): 248-55.

Reece, R.H. 1993. The name of Brooke: The end of White Rajah rule in Sarawak. Kuching, Malaysia: Persatuan Kesusasteraan Sarawak (2nd edition).

Ritchie, I. 1994. BrunoManser, the inside story. Singapore: Summer Times.

Roff, M. 1974. The politics of belonging. Kuala Lumpur: Oxford University Press.

Rousseau, J. 1996.The Bakun hydroelectric project and resettlement: A failure of planning. In Powerplay: Why the Bakun hydroelectric project is damned, edited by Institute of Social Analysis. Kuala Lumpur: Institute of Social Analysis (second edition).

Sachs, W. 1992. Environment. In The development dictionary, edited by W. Sachs. London and New Jersey: Zed Books.

Saravanamuttu, J. 1989. Look East Policy: In The real lessons: Mahathir’s economic policies, edited by Jomo, K.S. Kuala Lumpur: Institute of Social Analysis.

Saravanamuttu, J. 1992. The state, ethnicity and the middle class factor: Addressing non-violent democratic change in Malaysia. In Internal conflict and governance, edited by Rupesinghe, K. Basingstoke, England: St. Martin's Press.

Saravanamuttu, J. 1996. Malaysia's foreign policy in the Mahathir period, 1981- 1995: An iconoclast come to rule. Asian Journal of Political Science 4(1): 1-16.

SarawakForest Department. 1991. Forestry in Sarawak Malaysia. Kuching, Malaysia.

Scott, J.C. 1985. Weapons of the weak: Everyday forms of peasant resistance. New Haven: Yale University Press.

Shafruddin, B.H. 1987. The federal factor in the government and politics of Peninsular Malaysia. Singapore: Oxford University Press.

Shamsul, A.B. 1987. The battle royal: The UMNO elections of 1987. In Southeast Asian Affairs 1988, edited by Ayoob, M. and Ng Chee Yuen. Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies.

Shamsul, A.B. 1996. Debating about identity in Malaysia: A discourse analysis. Southeast Asian Studies 34(3): 476-99.

Shamsul, A.B. 1996a. Identity construction, nation formation and Islamic revivalist movement in Malaysia. In Islam in the era of nation-states: Politics and religious renewal in Southeast Asia, edited by Hefner, R. and Horvatich, P. Hawaii: University of Hawaii Press.

Shamsul, A.B. 1997. The economic dimension of Malay nationalism: The socio- historical roots of the New Economic Policy and its contemporary implications. The Developing Economies 35:3240-61.

Smythies, B.E. 1963. History of forestry in Sarawak. Malayan Forester 26(4): 232-50.

Stiglitz, J. and Squire, L. 1998. International development: Is it possible? Foreign Policy, Spring: 138-51.

Stoler, A.L. 1997. Tensions of empire. Berkeley: University of California Press.

Tarrow. S. 1989. Struggle, politics and reform: Collective action, social movements, and cycles of protest. New York: Cornell University.

Taylor, P.J. and Bunel, F. 1992. How do we know we have a global environmental problem? Science and globalisation of environmental discourse. Geoforum 23(3): 404-16.

Thang, H.C. and Masran Mohamad Salleh. 1991. Sustained yield forest management in Peninsular Malaysia. Paper presented at the Seminar on National Forest Policy, 21-22 January 1991, Kuala Lumpur.

Troup, E.C. 1940. Colonial forest administration. London: Oxford University Press.

Tsing, A.L. 1993. In the realm of the diamond queen. New Jersey: Princeton University Press.

Turton, A. 1984. Limits of ideological domination and the formation of social consciousness. In History and peasant consciousness in Southeast Asia, edited by Turton, A. and Tanabe, S. Osaka: National Museum of Ethnology.

Uchibori, M. 1984. Transformations of Iban social consciousness. In History and peasant consciousness in Southeast Asia, edited by A. Turton & S. Tanabe. Osaka: National Museum of Ethnology.

Utting, P. 1993. Trees, people and power. London: Earthscan Publications.

Van Cott, D.L. 1994. Ed. Indigenous peoples and democracy in Latin America. New York: St. Martin's Pres/Inter-American Dialogue.

Van den Top, G.M. 1998. Deforestation of the Northern Sierra Madre. In Environmental challenges in Southeast Asia, edited by King, V.T. Richmond Surrey: Curzon Press.

Welyne Jeffrey Jehom. 1999. The problem of ethnic identity in Sarawak. Akademika 55: 85-100.

Westoby, J. 1978. Forest industries for socio-economic development. Paper presented at the Eighth World Forestry Congress, 16-28 October, Jakarta, Indonesia.

Westoby, J. 1989. Introduction to world forestry, people and trees. Oxford: Basil Blackwell.

Whitmore. 1991. Tropical rain forest dynamics and its implications for management. In Rainforest regeneration and management (Man and the Biosphere Series), edited by Gomez-Pompa, A., Whitmore, T.C. and Hadley, M. V.6 . New Jersey: United Nations Economic and Social Commission, Parthenon Publishing.

Wilmer, F. 1993. The indigenous voice in world politics. Newbury Park, California: Sage.

World Rainforest Movement/Sahabat Alam Malaysia. 1990. The battle for Sarawak forests. Pulau Pinang, Malaysia: Sahabat Alam Malaysia.


Refbacks

  • There are currently no refbacks.


ISSN: 0126-5008

eISSN: 0126-8694